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It is confusing how everyone in tutorials everywhere is saying that using the openssl genrsa command you will generate the PRIVATE KEY, because they are forgetting that it is generating the PUBLIC KEY too – Jaime Hablutzel May 16 '12 at 22:17. After I have started QtPass for the first time and entered the info for the GnuPg key generation, it seems to be generating the key, but then hangs forever. Executing ps -ef grep gpg reveals that.
(updated 12/03/04 to point to refactored code)
Generating Keys
It's been just under a month since I've updated the Managed StrongName API, so here's the next set of APIs. This time, I've setup the APIs needed to create a new key suitable for signing. Namely, these are the StrongNameKeyGen and (for Whidbey) StrongNameKeyGenEx APIs. Both APIs work the same way, so I'll describe the newer StrongNameKeyGenEx API, which only adds an extra parameter from the old StrongNameKeyGen version. To start with, lets look at the P/Invoke declaration, from MS.StrongNameNativeNativeMethods.cs:
The parameters for StrongNameKeyGenEx work out as follows: Generate rsa keys in packet tracer.
Parameter | Use |
wszKeyContainer | Name of the key container to store the key in, can be null if passing no flags to dwFlags |
dwFlags | A member of the StrongNameKeyGenFlags enumeration. The only interesting member is LeaveKey which will not remove the generated key from its key container upon return from the API |
dwKeySize | This is available in StrongNameKeyGenEx only, and specifies the size in bits of the key to generate. StrongNameKeyGen defaults this to 1024. |
ppbKeyBlob | Generated key blob |
pcbKeyBlob | Size in bytes of the generated blob |
StrongNameKeyGenerationEx introduces the dwKeySize parameter, which allows you to generate keys of various sizes. However, .NET versions 1.0 and 1.1 will only sign with 1024 bit keys. Whidbey adds support for signing with 2048 bit keys. Both APIs return true if the key was successfully generated, and false if there was an error.
Since there is only a true / false return code, getting more information on error conditions is accomplished through the use of the StrongNameErrorInfo API, whose declaration can be found in MS.StrongNameNativeNativeMethods.cs. The return value from this function is an HRESULT, which can be translated into an Exception through the use of the Marshal.ThrowExceptionForHR, or on Whidbey Marshal.GetExceptionForHR APIs. This is shown in MS.StrongNameUtility.cs
Once you've gotten the key back from StrongNameKeyGenerationEx, you need to copy it into a managed byte array. This can be done with the Marshal.Copy method. However, this still leaves unmanaged memory allocated to your process. In order to release this memory, another P/Invoke declaration from MS.StrongNameNativeNativeMethods.cs is used. StrongNameFreeBuffer simply takes a pointer to the memory that StrongNameKeyGen(Ex) returned to you, and releases it.
Making a key file out of the resulting byte array is very easy. Since snk files are simply raw dumps of the key information needed to sign an assembly, simply writing the byte array out to a file will result in a usable .snk file.
This entire process can be found in the MS.StrongName.Keys::GenerateKeyPair method in MS.StrongNameKeys.cs. Boiled down to the essentials, with error checking removed, the process looks similar to the following:
/// <summary>
/// Generate a key and write it to a file
/// </summary>
/// <param name='keysize'>size, in bits, of the key to generate</param>
/// <param name='filename'>name of the file to write to</param>
/// <returns>true if the operation succeeded, false otherwise</returns>
private static bool GenerateKey(uint keysize, string filename)
{
Debug.Assert(!String.IsNullOrEmpty(filename));
/// Generate a key and write it to a file
/// </summary>
/// <param name='keysize'>size, in bits, of the key to generate</param>
/// <param name='filename'>name of the file to write to</param>
/// <returns>true if the operation succeeded, false otherwise</returns>
private static bool GenerateKey(uint keysize, string filename)
{
Debug.Assert(!String.IsNullOrEmpty(filename));
// variables that hold the unmanaged key
IntPtr keyBlob = IntPtr.Zero;
long generatedSize = 0;
IntPtr keyBlob = IntPtr.Zero;
long generatedSize = 0;
// create the key
bool createdKey = StrongName.Native.Generation.StrongNameKeyGenEx(null,
StrongName.Native.StrongNameKeyGenFlags.None, (int)keysize,
out keyBlob, out generatedSize);
bool createdKey = StrongName.Native.Generation.StrongNameKeyGenEx(null,
StrongName.Native.StrongNameKeyGenFlags.None, (int)keysize,
out keyBlob, out generatedSize);
// if there was a problem, translate it and report it
if(!createdKey || keyBlob IntPtr.Zero)
{
Exception error = Marshal.GetExceptionForHR(Utility.StrongNameErrorInfo());
Console.WriteLine('Error generating key: {0}', error.Message);
return false;
}
try
{
Debug.Assert(keyBlob != IntPtr.Zero);
if(!createdKey || keyBlob IntPtr.Zero)
{
Exception error = Marshal.GetExceptionForHR(Utility.StrongNameErrorInfo());
Console.WriteLine('Error generating key: {0}', error.Message);
return false;
}
try
{
Debug.Assert(keyBlob != IntPtr.Zero);
// make sure the key size makes sense
Debug.Assert(generatedSize > 0 && generatedSize <= Int32.MaxValue);
if(generatedSize <= 0 || generatedSize > Int32.MaxValue)
{
Console.WriteLine('Error while generating key');
return false;
}
// get the key into managed memory
byte[] key = new byte[generatedSize];
Marshal.Copy(keyBlob, key, 0, (int)generatedSize);
Debug.Assert(generatedSize > 0 && generatedSize <= Int32.MaxValue);
if(generatedSize <= 0 || generatedSize > Int32.MaxValue)
{
Console.WriteLine('Error while generating key');
return false;
}
// get the key into managed memory
byte[] key = new byte[generatedSize];
Marshal.Copy(keyBlob, key, 0, (int)generatedSize);
// write the key to the specified file
using(FileStream snkStream = new FileStream(filename, FileMode.Create, FileAccess.Write))
using(BinaryWriter snkWriter = new BinaryWriter(snkStream))
snkWriter.Write(key);
}
finally
{
// release the unmanaged memory the key resides in
if(keyBlob != IntPtr.Zero)
Utility.StrongNameFreeBuffer(keyBlob);
}
using(FileStream snkStream = new FileStream(filename, FileMode.Create, FileAccess.Write))
using(BinaryWriter snkWriter = new BinaryWriter(snkStream))
snkWriter.Write(key);
}
finally
{
// release the unmanaged memory the key resides in
if(keyBlob != IntPtr.Zero)
Utility.StrongNameFreeBuffer(keyBlob);
}
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// everything is written ok
return true;
}
return true;
}
Changes to the Managed StrongName project
I've made quite a few changes to the managed strong name files this time around. The biggest change was my decision to drop support for building the tool under v1.1 of the framework as well as Whidbey. Most of the P/Invoke declarations will still work, but there were going to be enough difference in the msn.exe tool itself, that I didn't feel like it justified creating all the differences. The biggest fallout from this is that classes that used to be sealed with a private constructor are now all static classes. In addition, the expanded capabilities of the Console and String classes are used. The complete change list is:
Modified
- StrongName.NativeVerification.cs
- removed the private constructor and made into static class
- msnmsn.cs
- added the -k mode
- removed the private constructor and made into a static class
- added an extra blank line of output in the output of msn
- converted String.Length 0 checks into String.IsNullOrEmpty calls
- always use Console.WindowWidth to figure out the size of the output
- msnmsn.resx
- added extra resources to support key generation
- msnVerification.cs
- removed the private constructor and made into a static class
Added
- StrongName.NativeGeneration.cs - P/Invoke declarations for StrongNameKeyGen and StrongNameKeyGenEx
- StrongName.NativeUtility.cs - P/Invoke declarations for StrongNameFreeBuffer and StrongNameErrorInfo
- msnGeneration.cs - Implementation of the -k option to msn, to allow for keys to be generated
April 19, 2017 -- Do tiny pieces of DNA hold the secret to aging?
Called telomeres, these tips on the ends of our chromosomes are generating heated debate as scientists try to better understand their role in aging.
A book released earlier this year titled The Telomere Effect: A Revolutionary Approach to Living Younger, Healthier, Longer says our lifestyle choices affect our telomeres and how we age.
Nobel Prize winner Elizabeth Blackburn, PhD, and University of California San Francisco health psychologist Elissa Epel, PhD, wrote the book, which made the New York Times best-seller list.
“The foods you eat, your response to emotional challenges, the amount of exercise you get, whether you were exposed to childhood stress, and even the level of trust and safety in your neighborhood -- all of these factors and more appear to influence your telomeres and can prevent premature aging at the cellular level,” the authors write.
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But some doctors and scientists argue the book is oversimplifying the science. And it comes at a time when researchers are questioning what role telomeres play in the aging process.
“There is no question that telomeres are part of the story,” says S. Jay Olshansky, PhD, of the University of Illinois, Chicago. “Are they the magic bullet that will allow us to live much longer? That’s the missing part of the equation that nobody can provide.”
So what exactly are telomeres?
Much like plastic ends on shoelaces, telomeres protect the ends of our chromosomes that carry our DNA, or genetic material.
Telomeres wear down and get shorter over your lifetime, harming their ability to protect chromosomes. When this happens, new cells don’t replace old ones. Researchers have been studying whether this cellular aging is a root cause for diseases and other problems that happen as we get older.
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In 2009, Blackburn was part of a team that won the Nobel Prize in Physiology for discovering that an enzyme called telomerase can help lengthen your telomeres.
Blackburn’s book delves further into the research around telomeres and what may affect them. In it, the co-authors make the case that while telomeres are just one pathway of aging, certain lifestyle changes might stabilize telomeres or increase telomerase and help prevent aging. The book says many studies show those lifestyle behaviors include diet, exercise, sleep, and actions related to chronic stress and mental well-being.
Among them:
- A small study found 45 minutes of moderate exercise, three times a week for six months “increased telomerase activity twofold.”
- A 2012 study found that sleeping fewer hours was associated with shorter telomere length in healthy men.
- Other studies show a Mediterranean diet is associated with longer telomeres.
“Small things we do each day add up in their effect over years and years,” Epel says. “If we are on a path for a long health span, we are not wearing our cells out, but rather getting the right nutrition and antioxidants, some activity, some joy and satisfaction, and enough restorative sleep each night, so the telomeres are maintained over years and years.”
Epel says scientists don’t know how easily we can change our telomere length and whether changing it in the short term makes much of a difference for longevity. That’s in part because long-term studies haven’t been done.
“There are indeed no single studies that have shown that lifestyle can change telomeres and in turn longer telomeres can lengthen life span,” Epel says. “But as with any behavior, the longer we do it, the more we maintain the benefit.”
Other experts say that except for a few diseases, like pulmonary fibrosis, most telomere research at this point shows only associations rather than direct cause and effect.
“We don’t understand how telomeres affect aging,' says Titia de Lange, PhD, a professor and head of the Laboratory of Cell Biology and Genetics at The Rockefeller University in New York. She’s studied telomere for 3 decades.
“Telomeres get shorter with age but this is all correlative, so it could be like grey hair: Yes, it happens but it’s not going to kill you,” de Lange says. “Basically none of the big questions have been answered. There is just a lot of correlative data -- some with dubious validity -- that so far has raised more questions than given answers.”
Mary Armanios, MD, clinical director of the Telomere Center at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, says the research community has more nuanced views about telomeres.
“It is not so simple that short telomeres are bad and long telomeres are good. What we are finding is that ‘middle-of-the-road’ telomeres are the best. There is also growing evidence that telomeres cannot be altered by environmental choices,” she says.
Armanios outlined this side of the research in a 2015 review that explained that longer telomeres also have a dark side: They are associated with the risk of several cancers. Like regular cells, cancer cells have telomeres.
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She says that telomeres became a pop culture phenomenon because we can measure them. “The fact that they are measureable in contrast to other changes with aging has put them in the spotlight,” Armanios says.
But aging is complicated, and many things, including our genes and environment, contribute to how we age, she says. “A telomere-centered view is a very narrow way to look at human aging in general, and the picture is more complicated.”
Olshansky says the telomere story has “fallen flat” in our understanding of aging.
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“Researchers believed for a while that this was going to be a magic bullet -- that if you could stop cells from losing telomeres the organisms could become immortal,” says Olshansky, a member of the board of directors of the American Federation of Aging Research. “It doesn’t mean there isn’t something to be learned here, but overall the aging process is not driven by telomeres shortening.”
So how should you approach aging? While many researchers debate the role of telomeres in aging, they agree on the benefits of a healthy lifestyle.
“There is ample evidence that lifestyle factors can mitigate the complex factors that lead to aging in general,” Armanios says. “Diet, exercise, stress reduction, enough sleep -- these things are good for all of us even though evidence that they lengthen telomeres is not clear in my mind.”
“The only equivalent of a fountain of youth that exists is exercise and diet and avoiding harmful behavior and risk factors like smoking and obesity,” Olshansky says. “If you are doing this, you are doing as much as you can to allow your genetic potential to play out.”